What We Know about Latina/o Student Access and Success
in Postsecondary Education
A Report to the Lumina Foundation
Raymond Padilla, Ph.D.
Meso Context: Opportunity Structure
34. Early math grades predicted overall
academic performance, and changes in math and English tended to
occur together with decreases in math particularly linked to
poor academic outcomes.
35. Those parents who expressed an
interest in furthering their education had children who aspired
to attend college, and those parents who did not aspire to
further their education, or had low levels of aspirations, had
children with similar levels of college going aspirations.
36. Only about half of the parents in one
study were able to report their child’s occupational or
educational aspirations.
 Institutions –
Middle School
37. College recruitment and admissions
activities should begin at the junior high school level and
should incorporate activities that engage both the students and
their families. Having staff with connections to the population
served is important.
38. College recruitment programs should
promote learning rather than focus on protecting youth from
their perceived negative environments. They should help
students locate resources and negotiate obstacles by building
bridges between home, peers, and school, especially for
immigrant and Spanish speaking students who may not know about
the resources available to them.
39. Most extracurricular activities are
correlated with a much higher likelihood of retention in high
school. Non-athletic extracurricular activities have a greater
positive relationship with school retention, but athletics also
correlate with a higher likelihood of retention.
40. In one study, Latina/o students noted
that the primary drawbacks to their college aspirations were the
low expectations of some teachers and dissuasion at times by
counselors about the attainability of the students’ college
going goal.
41. Higher levels of assisted performance
were related to higher grades for students in the college
preparatory track, but the reverse was true for students in the
remedial tracks. This may show that students in the remedial
tracks were receiving less effective instruction.
42. In a California study, schools that
offer more Advanced Placement (AP) classes are located in more
suburban and affluent parts of the state. Schools serving
urban, low income communities enroll the fewest number of
students in AP classes. Students who do not have access to AP
programs are at a distinct disadvantage when it comes to
applying for admission to the University of California.
43. In 2003 Latina/os averaged a score of
2 (5 is maximum) on five AP exams – Biology, Calculus AB,
Chemistry, English Literature/Composition, and U. S. History.
In contrast, Whites and Asians had an average score of 3
(passing) on three of the five examinations.
44. Reflecting on their high school
preparation, Hispanic undergraduates were less likely to rate
the quality of their education as excellent and more likely to
rate it as fair. They mentioned the absence of college
preparatory classes and suggested that teachers focus on
critical thinking skills, better study skills, offer more
counseling about college, and increase writing practice.
45. The first challenge experienced by
Latinas in one study was breaking the expectation that they
would stay at home while enrolled in college.
46. In another study, Puerto Rican
students reported close ties between their high academic
achievement and their religious beliefs and extracurricular
activities. Often they attributed good academic performance to
God. Through religious activities and extracurricular
activities both at school and at church, students gained access
to support networks and resources that helped them do well in
school.
47. High achieving Mexican Americans
(doctoral level) from low income backgrounds had certain common
characteristics: Parenting styles with an authoritarian figure,
the mother playing an active role in education, and families
sharing values often attributed to the middle class, thus
creating a “culture of possibility”.
48. College entrance examination scores do
not significantly predict college outcomes for Hispanic
students. But low test scores affect students’ opportunities,
or perceived opportunities, to secure scholarships, to gain
access to competitive programs, and lessen self confidence.
49. During the 1990s, the following
financial aid trends were noted for Hispanic students:
A decline in the percentage of recipients
of grants only; an increase of recipients of loans only and of
grants and loans.
50. In one study, the underlying
experience of Latina/o doctoral students is described as fragile
and vulnerable. Latina/o doctoral students felt as if they were
“made out of glass” and “held their breath” hoping that they
would not break before the process was over. Factors that gave
rise to the feelings of vulnerability included entering a new
and unfamiliar world, the lack of an adequate Latina/o presence
in their programs, experiences as an “outsider-within” status,
enduring identity changes, yearning for validation, and enduring
conflicts between two different worlds.
51. With respect to four-year degrees,
household variables (e.g. parents’ education, place of
residence) explain the majority of the differences between
Whites and non-Whites (Mexican Americans) in completion rates.
52. With respect to the Gates Millennium
Scholars: The promise of long term financial support for each
student has the effect of extending opportunity, of allowing
students to focus on college goals, and ultimately of ensuring
success against the odds typical for the majority of college
bound low income students.
53. Latinas’ drive for generational
change, or breaking the cycles of oppression of their mothers
and grandmothers, was a critical resource. Latinas were
inspired by women who had dedicated their lives to helping their
families survive and with whom they shared an experience of
gender oppression. Education provided these Latinas the
opportunity to achieve for themselves and attain higher status.
54. For Latina/o students, sharing
concerns with parents, friends, siblings, and significant others
was seen as preferable to seeking professional help. Coping
alone, or keeping problems to oneself, also was preferred.
55. In one study, Latina/o students talked
about how their interaction with faculty and the development of
a relationship with them helped the students to develop a
stronger sense of self competence and academic ability. The
faculty members were mentioned by name. Knowing that the
students could turn to faculty members for advice and guidance
was reassuring to them.
56. In a study of a community college with
seventy percent Latina/o student enrollments, it was found that
the transfer rates to four-year colleges and universities,
especially the University of California, were very low even
though a high number of students reported to have enrolled with
the goal of transferring (173 out of 191 students had such a
goal). Latina/o students were overwhelmed with balancing
multiple roles and responsibilities outside of college,
including those related to family and finances.
57. Latina/o student college success can
be driven by the student’s ability to create new networks and
maintain old ones, and by relying heavily on old networks.
Students who go at it alone and are unable to create new
networks or keep old ones, do less well.
58. In the Texas ten percent plan approach
to university admissions, the entering freshman class had more
Latina/o students from the top ten percent than when race
conscious admissions policies were in place. Although it was
argued that some Latina/o students admitted through the ten
percent plan had lower SAT scores than other students who were
not admitted through the ten percent plan, the students with
lower SAT scores had better grades and higher retention rates
than those with higher SAT scores.
59. Adolescent students expected to attain
professional jobs and to attend college. However, their reading
scores were low enough to cause the researchers’ concern that
their expectations might be unrealistic. Children who were
younger held higher expectations.
60. One study reported that there was a
lack of communication between the Latino parents and school
guidance counselors or administrators. Parents often reported
negative experiences with school staff. Parents often were
unaware of the importance or meaning of SAT scores.
61. For high achieving Puerto Rican
students, their mothers were key in helping the students find
information about college and financial aid, especially when the
school did not provide these.
62. One study found that 46 percent of
Latina/o students (elementary and middle school) aspired to
become higher executives and major professionals (doctors and
lawyers) while 19 percent aspired to other professions. Most of
the students could identify obstacles and resources related to
their aspirations.
63. Puente (an intervention) students
maintained higher aspirations across all four years of high
school as compared to non Puente students.
64. Aspiring to an advanced degree has a
positive influence on college enrollment rates for Hispanics.
65. Hispanic undergraduate students’
aspirations for a graduate education were higher when they spent
more time studying, were exposed to arts and humanities courses,
and possibly when they participated in athletics (sample was low
for the last item).
66. Hispanic students preferred high school
teachers who explained things well, were patient, friendly, and
made the course work relevant.
67. Students in one study were most
critical of their science and math teachers and often had
difficulty with math. Hispanic students’ least favorite
teachers were likely to be in math, foreign languages, and
English.
68. Well prepared Latina/o students attend
postsecondary institutions that are less selective and have
lower BA completion rates than similarly prepared Whites. When
well prepared Latina/os go to the same kinds of schools as their
White peers, they have lower graduation rates.
69. Students participating in an advanced
diploma program appreciated that their school faculty and staff
valued them personally, saw them as assets, provided good role
models, advocated for them, and created a safe environment at
school. They also stated that school personnel had high
expectations for their achievement, provided programs for their
needs, and valued their language and culture.
70. Adult family members provided students
race, gender, and class appropriate narratives that countered
the race neutral and meritocratic narratives about college-going
they received in school. These narratives included more honest
accounts about the struggles and realities of living racialized,
gendered, and classed experiences and the hardships of attaining
a higher education, as well as the community responsibilities
and obligations that come with attaining postsecondary degrees.
71. High achieving Latina/o students
actively recognized the cultural capital valued in higher
education, but also were savvy information gatherers who paid
close attention to detail about any information pertaining to
college, financial aid, and the fulfillment of their future
aspirations.
72. In California, Latina/o students had
an average minimum eligibility rate (to the University of
California) of 14 percent statewide, as compared to those
Latina/os who attended majority Asian American high schools
where the Latina/o eligibility rate was 35 percent. Conversely,
White and Asian American student eligibility rates when they
attended majority Latino schools were two to three times lower
than when they attended majority White or Asian American
schools.
73. Students’ self rating of academic
ability in various disciplines indicates that Latina/o students
see themselves as less academically competitive than their White
and Asian American counterparts.
74. In California, schools that offer more
AP classes are located in the suburban and affluent parts of the
state. AP classes are not distributed equally among
California’s 870 comprehensive high schools. Therefore,
students who do not have access to these classes are not
afforded the extra GPA points and other college admissions
benefits for taking AP classes, thus reducing their chances of
becoming competitively eligible for university admission.
75. In one school district studied,
Chicana/Latina students comprised 68 percent of the total
enrollment but only 48 percent of AP enrollment.
76. Schools serving urban, low income
communities of color enroll the fewest number of students in AP
classes.
77. The benefits that AP courses provide
(e.g., reduced time to degree, more qualified faculty, college
level work) will not be realized at the same level for poorer
students of color as there is limited AP access and offerings at
the high school level for these groups.
78. In a study of an advanced high school
diploma program involving Latina/o students, it was concluded
that the availability of Advance Placement courses and financial
counseling were important success factors. Without these
opportunities, the students might not have considered entering
college.
79. Previously established college choice
factors (high school academic grades, preparation, experiences,
and institutional attributes) were not as influential in making
a final matriculation decision as were psychological factors.
Feeling accepted, safe, and comfortable in a new academic and
social setting have greater relevance for students making their
final decision than other factors, such as institutional
quality, location, diversity, or cost.
80. One study found that college entrance
exam scores do not significantly predict college outcomes for
Hispanic students. However, test scores are not benign and may
have unforeseen effects on both opportunity and motivation of
Latina/o students who score poorly. This refutes the common
perception that college entrance examinations are not very
important if students have high grade point averages and are
considered good students. Many students reported resentment
that no one, including parents who had attended college and high
school teachers and counselors, had alerted them to the
importance of the tests and that the students could prepare to
take them. In fact, many reported having been told by these
significant adults that the tests “didn’t matter”. For that
reason, a large number of students in the study reported having
taken the test “cold turkey”, or without any preparation
beforehand.
81. According to test scores, Whites have
higher levels of academic ability as compared to Hispanic
students.
82. Some of the students admitted to
higher education in Texas under the ten percent plan had lower
SAT scores than other students who were not admitted through the
ten percent plan. Yet, the students with lower SAT scores had
better grades and higher retention rates than those with higher
SAT scores.
83. Study of academic admissions indices
for the University of California, Los Angeles and Davis revealed
that consistent predictors of admission were high school grade
point average, SAT I and SAT II test scores, family income, and
father’s education.
84. Latinos have improved very little in
SAT performance over the last decade.
85. One study found that Latino students’
ability as measured by the SAT was a significant predictor of
analytical skills in the second year of college. Similarly,
Latino participation in academic support programs was a positive
and significant predictor of higher analytical skills.
86. In a study of a community college in
California that enrolled over 70 percent Latina/o students, it
was concluded that this community college had failed in its
commitment to effectively fulfill its transfer function. This
was expressed by the community college’s higher emphasis on
maintaining and marketing its vocational and technical programs
to the detriment of academic programs. Some of these programs,
like car technology, were said to be important for Latina/o
students who come from car cultures. This shows that
administrators and counselors also operated from stereotypical
perspectives about Latino culture and students. These
perceptions also were expressed by way of cultural deficit
frameworks in which they attributed low transfer rates to Latino
families not highly valuing education.
87. As early as 1985 it was observed that
over 60 percent of all the Latino students received only one
source of aid, almost exclusively Basic Educational Opportunity
Grants (Pell Grants). It also was noted that attending a public
two-year college meant that students were less likely to receive
aid.
88. Aid packages with loans are less
significant in facilitating access for minority students than
for Whites. Increases in federal student grant funding, instead
of increased emphasis on student loans, is important, especially
for Latino students.
89. The percentage of Hispanics who did
not receive aid increased from 20 percent in 1990-91 to 31.4
percent in 1993-94 and then decreased to 25.1 percent in
1996-97.
90. One study concluded that the key to
increasing the number of Latina/o college graduates is to
eliminate poverty and other household factors that come with
poverty.
91. A study of the Gates Millennium
Scholars concluded that long term financial support for each
student has the effect of extending opportunity, allowing
students to focus on college goals and ultimately ensuring
success against the odds typical for the majority of college
bound low-income students.
92. Reasons reported for Latino youth not
finishing college included the cost of tuition and the need to
work and earn money. Similarly, lack of information about
financial aid and college costs are among the major reasons
deterring college attendance and completion.
93. With respect to persistence, one study
reported that whereas previous studies pointed to finances as a
significant stressor predictive of nonpersistence, finances were
not found to be predictive of nonpersistence.
94. In a study of admissions to the
University of California, it was noted that socioeconomic status
is more closely associated with admissions than is race.
95. Another study of persistence at the
University of California and California State University systems
found that most of the Chicano/Latino students were living at or
below the poverty level, and described financial aid shortages
as their main obstacle in being able to complete college.
96. Students in a high school advanced
diploma program described their families as having high
expectations for their behavior and achievement, teaching them
self advocacy, and valuing their language and heritage.
97. Latina/o students are much more likely
than White students to grow up with more than one poverty
related disadvantage. It was recommended that welfare-to-work
programs provide mothers with intensive training to increase the
achievement of their children.
98. The results of one study suggested
that allocating resources to promote parental involvement is an
effective approach for programs that are designed to increase
the college enrollment of underrepresented groups.
99. In a study of admissions to the
University of California, it was pointed out that there is a
small group of elite college preparatory schools in the state
that have a 60 percent admission rate to the University of
California.
100. The Principal’s Pick Program was an
intervention to increase the number of Latina/o students
eligible for admission to the University of California. The
principal took a proactive stance in the high school to make
sure that all remedial programs were eradicated and replaced
with college preparatory courses. The study found that
counselors and some faculty members strongly held to deficit
perspectives and beliefs about Latina/o culture and students.
Many communicated that they did not think Latina/o students were
capable of doing college preparatory work, nor were meant to be
college students. Many such personnel either retired or were
transferred to other schools. Those who stayed were strongly
committed to the new goals and were willing to change their view
about Latina/o students. The intervention was successful in
increasing the number of Latina/o students eligible for
admission to the University of California.
101. Another California intervention, the
Puente Project, was designed to increase the college going rates
of Latina/o students. A study of a statewide sample of Puente
students concluded that Puente students were more likely to stay
in school and have much higher aspirations for four-year college
attendance than non-Puente Latinos and non-Puente students in
general. Puente students also were more willing to give up
something important to them in favor of school then were the
other groups. In terms of information about and preparation for
college, the differences between Puente students and the other
students were dramatic. Puente students were more likely than
other students to seek advice from parents, teachers, and
especially counselors. Counselors seemed to play a very
important part in the lives of Puente students in terms of
working hard, going to college, and future goals.
102. In a second study of the Puente
Project, it was concluded that students in the project
experienced academic and interpersonal validation in their
interactions with faculty, counselors, and mentors. The
validation helped students to gain confidence in their academic
ability and this confidence generalized across different
classes. The counselors were seen as actively involved in the
students’ academic and personal growth as opposed to the
counselor’s traditional role of being confined to an office and
taking appointments. Puente counselors guided students with an
educational plan, provided the knowledge needed to transfer to a
four-year institution, and offered encouragement and support to
the students and their families.
103. A study was done of three student
centered colleges that decided to take into account the
background of their students in order to serve them better. By
learning about their student populations and what they bring
with them to campus, the institutions were able to respond more
effectively to students’ needs by designing programs tailored to
the specific student populations enrolled. Designing such
programs required that institutions look across the entire
campus (recruitment and admissions, financial aid, student
services, academic services, curriculum and instruction, etc.)
and evaluate the extent to which their practices were suitable
for the students.
104. A study of the Gates Millennium
Scholars (GMS) intervention concluded that GMS has made a
difference in lowering concerns about the difficulties
associated with paying college expenses. GMS scholars were more
likely to overcome the difficulties associated with low levels
of parental education. They also were more likely to attend
more selective public institutions and private institutions,
suggesting that the program provides award money that enhances
scholar’s college choice. In addition, scholars were likely to
work fewer hours for pay, to live on campus, to rely on their
racial group for support, to have a faculty member take an
interest in them, and to be committed to obtaining the degree.
105. An intervention to increase access to
higher education for Latino students focused on reducing the
information gap of Latino parents about the path to college.
The intervention attempted to empower the parents. It did so by
providing a forum where issues that disproportionately affect
families of color could be openly discussed. Parents were not
merely the receivers of information. They were part of a
community that aided them in developing networks and work toward
becoming advocates. In essence, the program helped families to
learn about what “the system” is, how it works, and how to
navigate it successfully. It was the regularity of the meetings
and the consistency of attendance that helped the parents to
develop parental empowerment.
106. A critical theory approach was the
basis for a high school intervention aimed at increasing high
school graduation and college going rates. The aim was to
empower the students by requiring them to examine the system of
education using their own experiences as a way to understand its
complexity. The study also focused on developing the students’
strengths and abilities rather than addressing deficits. Of the
30 students who participated, 29 graduates high school and 25
were admitted to a postsecondary institution.
107. An analysis of critically reviewed
interventions for minority students at the postsecondary level
revealed that the more effective interventions had the following
characteristics: Institutional leadership, targeted
recruitment, engaged faculty, personal attention, peer support,
comprehensive financial assistance, enriched research
opportunities, creating a bridge to the next level, and
continuous evaluation.
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